Engineering Mechanics

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  • INTRODUCTION

Nickel, the 24th element in abundance, has an average content of 0.016% in the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust. This is greater than the total for copper, zinc, and lead. However, few of these deposits scattered throughout the world are of commercial importance. Oxide ores commonly called laterites are largely distributed in the tropics. The igneous rocks contain high magnesium contents and have been concentrated by weathering. Of the total known ore deposits, more than 80% is contained in laterite ores. The sulfide ores found in the Northern Hemisphere do not easily concentrate by weathering. The sulfide ores in the Sudbury district of Ontario, which contain important by-products such as copper, cobalt, iron, and precious metals, are the world’s greatest single source of nickel.1 Nickel has an atomic number of 28 and is one of the transition elements in the fourth series in the periodic table. The atomic weight is 58.71 and density is 8.902 g/cm3. Nickel has a high melting temperature (1453∘C) and a ductile crystal structure (fcc). Nickel exhibits mild ferromagnetism at room temperature (saturation magnetization of 0.617 T and residual magnetism of 0.300 T) and has an electrical conductivity at 100∘C of 82.8 W/m⋅K. The thermal expansion coefficient between 20 and 100∘C is 13.3 × 10−6 /C−1. The electrical resistivity of nickel at 20∘C is 6.97 ????Ω⋅cm and the specific heat at 20∘C is 0.44 kJ/kg⋅K. The modulus of elasticity in tension is 206 GPa and 73.6 GPa in shear. The Poisson ratio is 0.30.2 Nickel can be readily alloyed with other metallic elements to form a wide range of commercial alloys. As an alloying element, nickel is used in hardenable steels, stainless steels, special corrosion-resistant and high-temperature alloys, copper–nickel, “nickel– silvers,” and aluminum–nickel. Nickel imparts ductility and toughness to cast iron. Nickel alloys are used in a multiplicity of consumer applications, such as household appliances, electronics, and automotive components. Selected nickel alloys are used in critical industrial technologies, including chemical processing, pollution control, and aircraft, missile, and ship production as well as electric power generation.



Curriculum for this course
723 Lessons 00:00:00 Hours
Introduction to Carbon and alloy steels
1 Lessons
  • Introduction to Carbon and alloy steels
  • STEEL MANUFACTURE
  • DEVELOPMENT OF STEEL PROPERTIES
  • ROLE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL
  • HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
  • CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIFICATIONS OF STEELS
  • Carbon Steels
  • Alloy Steels
  • SUMMARY
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY of carbon and alloy steels
  • General References of carbon and alloy steels
  • Specifications on Steel Products
  • STAINLESS STEELS
  • EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
  • SOME FORMS OF CORROSION
  • Stress Corrosion Cracking
  • Pitting Corrosion
  • Crevice Corrosion
  • Intergranular Corrosion
  • Galvanic Corrosion
  • AOD, DUAL CERTIFICATION, AND CHEMISTRY CONTROL
  • AVAILABILITY of corrosion
  • FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL
  • MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS
  • AGE-HARDENING MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS
  • DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
  • AUSTENITIC STAINLESS AND NICKEL ALLOYS
  • WELDING
  • Carbon versus Stainless Steel
  • Austenitic Alloys
  • Duplex Stainless Steels
  • High-Molybdenum Alloys
  • websites for stainless steels
  • REFERENCES
  • TRADEMARKS for stainless steel
  • NATURE OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • Wrought Aluminum Alloys
  • Cast Aluminum Alloys
  • Limitations of Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys
  • Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System
  • Cast Aluminum Alloy Designation System
  • Aluminum Alloy Temper Designation System
  • MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • General Corrosion
  • Pitting Corrosion
  • Galvanic Corrosion
  • MACHINING ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • Single-Point Tool Operations
  • Multipoint Tool Operations
  • FINISHING ALUMINUM
  • Mechanical Finishes
  • Chemical Finishes
  • Electrochemical Finishes
  • Clear Anodizing
  • Color Anodizing
  • Integral Color Anodizing
  • Electrolytically Deposited Coloring
  • Hard Anodizing
  • Electroplating
  • Applied Coatings
  • APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
  • Applications by Alloy Class
  • Cast Alloys
  • Applications by Market Area
  • Electrical Markets
  • Building and Construction Markets
  • Automobile, Van, SUV, Bus, and Truck Applications
  • Aircraft and Aerospace Applications
  • Marine Transportation
  • Rail Transportation
  • Packaging Applications
  • Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components
  • Other Markets
  • SUMMARY of aluminium alloys
  • REFERENCES of aluminium alloys
  • Additional Selected Reading for aluminum alloys
  • INTRODUCTION TO COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
  • COPPER ALLOY FAMILIES
  • Compositions of Copper and Copper Alloys
  • Physical Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys
  • Strengthening Mechanisms
  • Mechanical Properties Data
  • Effect of Temperature
  • Impact Loading
  • CORROSION BEHAVIOR
  • Forms of Corrosion
  • Corrosion, Copper, Health, and the Environment
  • Biostatic and Antimicrobial Properties
  • Fabrication of Machining
  • Recommended Machining Practices
  • Free-Cutting Brass Machining Economics
  • Casting
  • Forging
  • Welding, Brazing, and Soldering
  • Coppers and High-Copper Alloys
  • Dissimilar-Metal Combinations
  • Shielding Gas Requirements
  • Welding Processes
  • GTAW
  • GMAW
  • Joint Preparation
  • Filler Metals
  • Distortion Control
  • Avoiding Cracking
  • Weld Properties
  • Safety and Health
  • TUBE AND PIPE PRODUCTS Of Plumbing Tube
  • TUBE AND PIPE PRODUCTS Of Plumbing Tube
  • TUBE AND PIPE PRODUCTS Of Plumbing Tube
  • Nonflammable Medical Gas Piping Systems
  • Fuel Gas Distribution Systems
  • COPPER ALLOY SLEEVE BEARINGS
  • Tin Bronzes
  • Leaded Tin Bronzes
  • High-Leaded Tin Bronzes
  • High-Strength Brasses
  • Aluminum Bronzes
  • Silicon Brasses
  • Copper–Beryllium Alloys
  • Lead-Free Bearing Bronze
  • STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
  • ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
  • REFERENCES OF COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
  • INTRODUCTION TO A Guide to Engineering Selection of Titanium Alloys for Design
  • What Are Titanium Alloys?
  • Temperature Capability of Titanium Alloys
  • Strength and Corrosion Capability of Titanium and Its Alloys
  • How Are Alloys Strengthened?
  • Manufacture of Titanium Articles
  • Titanium Alloy Information
  • METALLURGY OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
  • Structures of Titanium Alloys
  • Crystal Structure Behavior in Alloys
  • Metals at High Temperatures
  • Mechanical Behavior
  • Introduction to Microstructure and Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
  • Alloy Composition and General Behavior
  • Strengthening of Titanium Alloys
  • Effects of Alloy Elements
  • Intermetallic Compounds and Other Secondary Phases
  • Elastic Constants and Physical Properties
  • Effects of Processing
  • Hydrogen (in CP Titanium)
  • Hydrogen (in CP Titanium)
  • Oxygen and Nitrogen (in CP Titanium)
  • General Aspects of Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys
  • Alpha Alloys
  • Alpha–Beta Alloys
  • Beta Alloys
  • Properties—Wrought Alloys
  • Properties—Cast Alloys
  • Properties—Powder Formed Alloys
  • Property Summary—Wrought, Cast, Powder Metallurgy Products
  • General Aspects of the Manufacture of Titanium Articles
  • Production of Titanium via Vacuum Arc Melting
  • Cutting the Cost of Titanium Alloy Melting
  • Defects and Their Control in Titanium Melting
  • Forging Titanium Alloys
  • Casting Of A Guide to Engineering Selection of Titanium Alloys for Design
  • Machining and Residual Stresses
  • Joining
  • Other Aspects of Titanium Alloy Selection
  • Corrosion
  • Biomedical Applications
  • Cryogenic Applications
  • FINAL COMMENTS OF A Guide to Engineering Selection of Titanium Alloys for Design
  • Newer Titanium Products
  • Thoughts on Alloy Selection
  • Titanium Information Group
  • Japan Titanium Society
  • International Titanium Association
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY of A Guide to Engineering Selection of Titanium Alloys for Design
  • Introduction to Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Classification of Alloys
  • Discussion and Applications
  • Nickel Alloys
  • Nickel–Copper Alloys
  • Nickel–Chromium–Iron Alloys
  • Nickel–Iron–Chromium Alloys
  • Nickel–Iron
  • Nickel–Chromium–Molybdenum Alloys
  • Corrosion of Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Fabrication of Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Resistance to Deformation
  • Strain Hardening
  • Heat Treatment
  • Reducing Atmosphere
  • Prepared Atmosphere
  • Welding Of Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Machining Of Nickel and Its Alloys
  • Introduction to Magnesium and Its Alloys
  • Uses of Magnesium
  • Nonstructural Applications
  • Structural Applications Of Magnesium
  • Alloys and Properties
  • Mechanical Properties of Castings
  • Mechanical Properties of Wrought Materials
  • Physical Properties of Magnesium
  • Machining In Fabrication Of Magnesium and Its Alloys
  • Joining In Fabrication Of Magnesium and Its Alloys
  • Forming In Fabrication of Magnesium and Its Alloys
  • CORROSION AND FINISHING
  • Chemical Conversion Coatings
  • Anodic Coatings
  • Painting
  • Electroplating
  • RECYCLING
  • LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
  • REFERENCES of Magnesium and Its Alloys
  • INTRODUCTION
  • What Are Superalloys?
  • How Are Superalloys Strengthened?
  • Manufacture of Superalloy Articles
  • Superalloy Information
  • Metals at High Temperatures
  • Mechanical Behavior
  • Physical/Environmental Properties of Superalloys
  • Mechanical Properties of Superalloys
  • Introduction to The Evolution of Superalloys
  • Superalloy Modifications
  • Improvement of Superalloys by Chemistry and Process Control or Minor Additions of New Elements
  • General Aspects
  • Melting and Refining Superalloys
  • Pros and Cons of Remelted Ingot Processing
  • Melting Considerations in Alloy Selection
  • Casting Practices to Produce Parts
  • Casting Considerations in Alloy Selection
  • Wrought Processing—Forging and Powder Metal Superalloys
  • Wrought Processing—Forging/Working Considerations in Alloy Selection
  • Joining
  • Summary of Component Production
  • Some Superalloy Information Sources
  • Corrosion and Coatings for Protection
  • Special Alloys for Hot-Corrosion Resistance
  • Thermal Barrier Coatings
  • Postservice Refurbishment and Repair
  • What Alloys Are Available Off the Shelf for Intermediate Temperature Applications?
  • Comments on Wrought Alloys for Intermediate-Temperature Applications
  • Comments on Wrought Alloys for Intermediate-Strength Higher Temperature Applications
  • What Alloys Are Available for High-Strength, High-Temperature Applications?
  • Comments on Cast Alloys for High-Temperature Applications
  • A Guide to Engineering Selection of Superalloys for Design
  • Introduction
  • Classification of Plastics
  • Chemical/Solvent Resistance
  • Plastics Additives
  • Properties
  • Polyethylene
  • Polypropylene
  • Polymethylpentane
  • Polystyrene
  • Syndiotactic Polystyrene
  • Styrene–Acrylonitrile Copolymers
  • Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene Polymers
  • Acrylonitrile–Styrene–Acrylate Polymers
  • Poly(methyl methacrylate)
  • Styrene–Maleic Anhydride Copolymers
  • Styrene–Methyl Methacrylate Copolymers
  • Polyvinyl Chloride
  • Rigid PVC
  • Plasticized PVC
  • Foamed PVC
  • PVC Copolymers
  • Poly(vinylidene chloride)
  • Polyurethanes Polyureth
  • Cellulosic Polymers
  • Thermoplastic Polyesters
  • Thermoplastic Polyesters
  • Polyamides (Nylon)
  • Polycarbonate
  • Acetals
  • Polycarbonate–ABS Alloys
  • Polyester–Carbonates
  • Polyarylates
  • Modified Polyphenylene Ether
  • Polyphenylene Sulfide
  • Polybiphenyldisufones
  • Polyarylsulfones
  • Liquid Crystalline Polyesters
  • Polyimides
  • Polyetherimide
  • Poly(amide imides)
  • Poly(amide imides)
  • Modified Poly(p-phenylene)
  • Aromatic Polyketones
  • Poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
  • Poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene)
  • Fluorinated Ethylene–Propylene
  • Polyvinylidene Fluoride
  • Poly(ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene)
  • Poly(vinyl fluoride)
  • Phenolic Resins
  • Epoxy Resins
  • Unsaturated Polyesters
  • Vinyl Esters
  • Alkyd Resins
  • Diallyl Phthalate
  • Amino Resins
  • GENERAL-PURPOSE ELASTOMERS
  • SPECIALTY ELASTOMERS
  • Introduction
  • Classes and Characteristics of Composite Materials
  • Comparative Properties of Composite Materials
  • Classes and Characteristics of Composite Materials
  • Classes and Characteristics of Composite Materials
  • Comparative Properties of Composite Materials
  • Manufacturing Considerations
  • REINFORCEMENTS AND MATRIX MATERIALS
  • Reinforcements
  • Matrix Materials
  • PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
  • Polymer Matrix Composites
  • Mechanical and Physical Properties of Metal Matrix Composites
  • Properties of Ceramic Matrix Composites
  • Properties of Carbon Matrix Composites
  • Advanced Thermal Management Materials
  • APPLICATIONS
  • Polymer Matrix Composite Applications
  • Metal Matrix Composite Applications
  • Carbon Matrix Composite Applications
  • Ceramic Matrix Composite Applications
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY
  • INTRODUCTION
  • PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
  • ELECTROSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
  • MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
  • ELASTORESTRICTIVE MATERIALS
  • ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL MATERIALS
  • MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL MATERIALS
  • THERMORESPONSIVE MATERIALS
  • pH-SENSITIVE MATERIALS
  • LIGHT-SENSITIVE MATERIALS
  • SMART POLYMERS
  • SMART (INTELLIGENT) GELS (HYRDOGELS)
  • SMART CATALYSTS
  • SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
  • UNUSUAL BEHAVIORS OF MATERIALS
  • COMMENTS, CONCERNS, AND CONCLUSIONS
  • FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS
  • REFERENCES
  • INTRODUCTION
  • PROCESSING OF ADVANCED CERAMICS
  • BRITTLENESS AND BRITTLE MATERIALS DESIGN
  • APPLICATIONS
  • Ceramics in Wear Applications
  • Thermostructural Applications
  • Corrosion Resistance
  • Passive Electronics
  • Piezoceramics
  • Transparencies
  • Manufacturers and Suppliers
  • Data
  • Standards, Test Methods, and Handbooks
  • FUTURE TRENDS
  • REFERENCES
  • Scope
  • Overview
  • Approach
  • Design Techniques
  • Availability of Information
  • Material Properties
  • Typical Applications
  • Candidate Materials
  • Component Mounting
  • Fastening and Joining
  • Interconnection
  • Shock and Vibration
  • Structural Design
  • Thermal Design
  • Protective Packaging
  • Software Design Aids
  • REFERENCES
  • INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
  • NTENDED USES FOR DATA
  • Modeling Material and/or Product Performance
  • Materials Selection
  • Analytical Comparisons
  • Preliminary Design
  • Final Design
  • Material Specification
  • Manufacturing
  • Quality Assurance
  • Maintenance
  • Failure Analysis
  • Numeric Databases
  • Metadata
  • TYPES OF DATA
  • Textual Data
  • SUBJECTS OF DATA SOURCES
  • DATA QUALITY AND RELIABILITY
  • PLATFORMS: TYPES OF DATA SOURCES
  • SPECIFIC DATA SOURCES
  • ASM International and the Alloy Center
  • STN International
  • knovel.com
  • The Internet
  • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
  • REFERENCES
  • Introduction
  • INITIAL SCREENING OF MATERIALS
  • Analysis of Material Performance Requirements
  • Quantitative Methods for Initial Screening
  • COMPARING AND RANKING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
  • Weighted-Properties Method
  • SELECTING THE OPTIMUM SOLUTION
  • CASE STUDY IN MATERIALS SELECTION
  • Material Performance Requirements
  • INITIAL SCREENING OF MATERIALS
  • Comparing and Ranking Alternative Solutions
  • Selecting the Optimum Solution
  • MATERIALS SUBSTITUTION
  • Pugh Method
  • Cost–Benefit Analysis
  • CASE STUDY IN MATERIALS SUBSTITUTION
  • Locating Materials Properties Data
  • Types of Material Information
  • Computerized Materials Databases
  • Computer Assistance in Making Final Selection
  • Expert Systems
  • REFERENCES
  • Fundamental Definitions
  • Work and Resilience
  • DISCONTINUITIES, STRESS, AND CONCENTRATION
  • COMBINED STRESSES
  • CREEP
  • FATIGUE
  • Modes of Failure
  • Theory of Flexure
  • Design of Beams
  • Continuous Beams
  • Curved Beams
  • Impact Stresses in Bars and Beams
  • Steady and Impulsive Vibratory Stresses
  • Definitions
  • Determination of Torsional Stresses in Shafts
  • Bending and Torsional Stresses
  • Definitions
  • Theory
  • Wooden Columns
  • Steel Columns
  • Thin Cylinders and Spheres under Internal Pressure
  • Thick Cylinders and Spheres
  • Plates
  • Trunnion
  • Socket Action
  • CONTACT STRESSES
  • Contact Stress Theory
  • Shafts
  • Disks
  • Blades
  • SPRINGS
  • Helical Compression Springs and Tension Springs
  • Torsional Springs under Bending
  • Bending Springs under Bending
  • DESIGN SOLUTION SOURCES AND GUIDELINES
  • Computers
  • Testing
  • REFERENCES
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY
  • INTRODUCTION
  • FORCE TRANSDUCERS
  • UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINES
  • The Strain Gauge Sensor
  • Strain Gauge Circuit Compensation
  • RESONANT ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS
  • SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE TRANSDUCERS
  • DYNAMOMETERS
  • OPTICAL FORCE TRANSDUCERS
  • MAGNETOELASTIC TRANSDUCERS
  • FORCE BALANCE TRANSDUCERS
  • FORCE TRANSDUCER CHARACTERISTICS
  • Capacity
  • Output
  • Repeatability
  • Creep
  • Temperature Coefficient
  • Accuracy
  • CALIBRATION
  • Uncertainty
  • Other Equipment
  • Operator Inconsistency
  • Conclusion
  • REFERENCES
  • Scope
  • Definition of Strain
  • Practical Implications
  • General Description
  • Strain Sensitivity
  • Strain Gauge Alloys and Calibration Parameters
  • Strain Gauge Rosettes
  • The Wheatstone Bridge
  • SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGES
  • LIQUID METAL STRAIN GAUGES
  • REFERENCES
  • DEFORMATION OF A SOLID
  • EQUILIBRIUM
  • INFINITESIMAL LINEARLY ELASTIC CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
  • FOUNDATIONS OF THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD
  • HILBERTIAN SOBOLEV SPACES
  • FINITE-ELEMENT FORMULATION IN THREE DIMENSIONS
  • GLOBAL/LOCAL TRANSFORMATIONS
  • DIFFERENTIAL PROPERTIES OF SHAPE FUNCTIONS
  • DIFFERENTIATION IN REFERENTIAL COORDINATES
  • POSTPROCESSING
  • ONE-DIMENSIONAL EXAMPLE
  • SUMMARY
  • REFERENCES
  • CRITERIA OF FAILURE
  • FAILURE MODES
  • ELASTIC DEFORMATION AND YIELDING
  • FRACTURE MECHANICS AND UNSTABLE CRACK GROWTH
  • FATIGUE
  • Fatigue Loading and Laboratory Testing
  • Stress–Life Approach to Fatigue
  • Strain–Life Approach to Fatigue
  • Fatigue Crack Propagation
  • CREEP AND STRESS RUPTURE
  • Basic Mechanisms of Creep Deformation
  • Prediction of Long-Term Creep Behavior
  • Creep under a Uniaxial State of Stress
  • Creep under a Multiaxial State of Stress
  • Mechanisms of Creep–Fatigue Failure
  • FRETTING AND WEAR
  • Fretting Phenomena
  • Wear Phenomena
  • CORROSION AND STRESS CORROSION
  • Types of Corrosion
  • Stress Corrosion Cracking
  • FAILURE ANALYSIS AND RETROSPECTIVE DESIGN
  • REFERENCES
  • INTRODUCTION
  • Material Selection
  • Design
  • Process
  • Service Conditions
  • Mechanical Failure
  • Thermal Failure
  • Chemical Failure
  • Environmental Failure
  • ANALYZING FAILURES
  • Visual Examination
  • Identification Analysis
  • Stress Analysis
  • Heat Reversion (ASTM F1057)
  • Microtoming (Microstructural Analysis)
  • Mechanical Testing
  • Thermal Analysis
  • Nondestructive Testing Technique
  • Fractography (ASTM C1145)
  • Simulation Testing
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY
  • OVERVIEW
  • FLAWS
  • FRACTURE MECHANICS
  • STRENGTH
  • DELAYED FAILURE
  • Scatter of Strength
  • Scatter of Lifetime
  • Strength under Compression Loading
  • Global Multiaxial Fracture Criterion
  • Local Multiaxiality Criterion
  • MATERIALS SELECTION FOR THERMAL SHOCK CONDITIONS
  • FAILURE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
  • Creep Strain
  • Creep Rupture
  • REFERENCES
  • VISCOSITY BACKGROUND
  • COMMON UNITS OF VISCOSITY
  • Absolute Viscosity, �
  • Kinematic Viscosity, �
  • Nonstandard Units
  • Distinction between Rheology and Viscometry
  • Mathematical Formalism
  • Relation of Viscosity to Molecular Theory
  • Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Viscosity
  • Correlations of Viscosity with Temperature for Gases
  • Correlations of Viscosity with Temperature for Liquids
  • Effect of Pressure on Viscosity
  • MAJOR VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT METHODS
  • Drag-Type Viscometers
  • Bubble (Tube) Viscometers
  • Rotational Viscometers
  • Flow-Type Viscometers
  • Orifice-Type (Cup) Viscometers
  • Vibrational (Resonant) Viscometers
  • ASTM STANDARDS FOR MEASURING VISCOSITY
  • QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN SELECTING A VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
  • REFERENCES
  • Introduction
  • MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
  • Surface Profilometer
  • Optical Microscopy
  • Advanced Techniques for Surface Topography Evaluation
  • MEASUREMENT OF FRICTION
  • Inclined-Plane Rig
  • Pin-on-Disc Rig
  • Conformal and Nonconformal Geometry Rig
  • Environment Control
  • Techniques for Friction Force Measurement
  • MEASUREMENT OF WEAR
  • Temperature Measurement
  • Thermocouples
  • Thin-Film Sensors
  • Radiation Detectors
  • Metallographic Observation
  • Liquid Crystals
  • Humidity Measurement
  • Measurement of Oxygen and Other Gauges
  • MEASUREMENT OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
  • Hardness
  • Young’s Modulus and the Elasticity Limit
  • Fracture Toughness
  • Residual Stresses
  • Chemical Composition of a Surface
  • MEASUREMENT OF LUBRICANT CHARACTERISTICS
  • Analysis of Chemical Changes
  • Viscosity Measurement
  • Lubricant Oxidation Tests
  • Wear particle Analysis
  • Chemical Analysis of Particles in Lubricant
  • Analysis Based on Separation of Wear Particles
  • Industrial measurements
  • Tribology Measurements
  • INTRODUCTION
  • Modeling of Physical Systems
  • Single Degree of Freedom System
  • Equation of Motion
  • Free Vibration
  • Forced Harmonic Vibration
  • Forced Nonharmonic Vibration
  • Multidegree of Freedom System
  • Equations of Motion
  • Free Vibration Response
  • Forced Vibration Response
  • Vibration of Continuous Systems
  • Transverse Vibration of a String
  • Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar
  • Torsional Vibration of a Shaft
  • Flexural Vibration of a Beam
  • Vibration and Shock Isolation
  • Vibration Isolation
  • Shock Isolation
  • Standards for Vibration of Machines
  • INTRODUCTION
  • Sound Power, Sound Intensity, and Sound Pressure
  • Sound Power
  • Sound Intensity
  • Sound Pressure
  • Decibel and Other Scales
  • Weighting Filters
  • IMPEDANCE
  • THEORY OF SOUND
  • Constitutive Equations
  • Wave Equation
  • Absorptive Processes
  • Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption
  • Reflection/Transmission from a Single Interface
  • Reflection/Transmission from a Solid Surface
  • Reflection/Transmission at Discontinuities in Pipes
  • Hearing Protection
  • Hearing Protection Devices
  • PASSIVE NOISE CONTROL
  • Source/Path/Receiver Considerations
  • Definitions
  • Impedance Considerations: Vibration Isolation Mounts
  • Transmission Loss for Isolation Mounts
  • Acoustic Filters
  • Lined Ducts
  • Single- and Double-Leaf Partitions
  • Enclosures
  • ACTIVE NOISE CONTROL
  • Control Architectures
  • Attenuation Limits
  • Filtered-x Algorithm
  • System Identification
  • Control Applications
  • ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
  • COMMUNITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE
  • Outdoor Sound Propagation
  • Representations of Community Noise Data
  • Community Noise Criteria
  • Community Response to Noise
  • SOUND QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • Mathematical Metrics Procedures
  • Critical Band Rate
  • Loudness
  • Sharpness
  • Fluctuation Strength
  • Roughness
  • Tonality
  • Sensory Pleasantness
  • Limitations
  • NONLINEAR ACOUSTICS
  • Theory
  • Radiation Pressure and Streaming
  • Applications of Nonlinear Acoustics
  • THE HUMAN EAR AND HEARING
  • Psychoacoustic Effects
  • MICROPHONES AND LOUDSPEAKERS
  • INTRODUCTION
  • Acoustical Measurement Standards
  • FUNDAMENTAL MEASURES
  • Sound Pressure
  • Sound Power
  • Sound Intensity
  • Decibel Scale
  • Frequency Weightings
  • Octave Frequency Bands
  • MICROPHONES
  • Condenser Microphone
  • Electret Condenser Microphones
  • Dynamic Microphone
  • Microphone Selection
  • Microphone Accuracy
  • Calibration
  • Pistonphone Calibration
  • Reciprocity Calibration
  • Relative Calibration
  • Switching Calibration
  • SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
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Nickel, the 24th element in abundance, has an average content of 0.016% in the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust. This is greater than the total for copper, zinc, and lead. However, few of these deposits scattered throughout the world are of commercial importance. Oxide ores commonly called laterites are largely distributed in the tropics. The igneous rocks contain high magnesium contents and have been concentrated by weathering. Of the total known ore deposits, more than 80% is contained in laterite ores. The sulfide ores found in the Northern Hemisphere do not easily concentrate by weathering. The sulfide ores in the Sudbury district of Ontario, which contain important by-products such as copper, cobalt, iron, and precious metals, are the world’s greatest single source of nickel.1 Nickel has an atomic number of 28 and is one of the transition elements in the fourth series in the periodic table. The atomic weight is 58.71 and density is 8.902 g/cm3. Nickel has a high melting temperature (1453∘C) and a ductile crystal structure (fcc). Nickel exhibits mild ferromagnetism at room temperature (saturation magnetization of 0.617 T and residual magnetism of 0.300 T) and has an electrical conductivity at 100∘C of 82.8 W/m⋅K. The thermal expansion coefficient between 20 and 100∘C is 13.3 × 10−6 /C−1. The electrical resistivity of nickel at 20∘C is 6.97 ????Ω⋅cm and the specific heat at 20∘C is 0.44 kJ/kg⋅K. The modulus of elasticity in tension is 206 GPa and 73.6 GPa in shear. The Poisson ratio is 0.30.2 Nickel can be readily alloyed with other metallic elements to form a wide range of commercial alloys. As an alloying element, nickel is used in hardenable steels, stainless steels, special corrosion-resistant and high-temperature alloys, copper–nickel, “nickel– silvers,” and aluminum–nickel. Nickel imparts ductility and toughness to cast iron. Nickel alloys are used in a multiplicity of consumer applications, such as household appliances, electronics, and automotive components. Selected nickel alloys are used in critical industrial technologies, including chemical processing, pollution control, and aircraft, missile, and ship production as well as electric power generation.

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